The practice of crucifixion was probably first started in Persia convicts were then tied to a tree, or linked or impaled on a vertical pole, the aim of preventing their feet touching the ground considered sacred. This practice will then be introduced into Egypt and Carthage, the Hellenistic period, in various forms (Some argue that the cross-shaped T have originated in ancient Chaldea, and was used as a symbol of the god Tammuz, being shaped Tau, the initial of his name).
At the end of the 1st century BC. AD, the Romans adopt, under the influence of the Carthaginians, to punish non-Romans, slaves and rebels. Among them was a particularly humiliating and degrading practice for convicts.
The most famous was crucified Jesus. However it is unclear what type of sideways cross was tortured. Iconographic form of the cross as indicated by tradition is not certain. Indeed, the early Christians refusing to represent "the instrument of the Lord's death", we do know that some ancient descriptions. However, we know that the sideways cross as a symbol was already associated with Christians in the late 2nd century AD, as seen in the anti-Christian arguments cited in the "Octavius, chap. IX and XXIX" Minucius Felix. And when Clement of Alexandria (150-220 AD) used the term "the sign of the Lord", everyone understood already unambiguously designate the cross he wanted.
However, in ancient times, the word "CROSS" and the shape of the object it designated is not as certain as what you might think.
In the original Bible in Greek, the word we translate as "Cross" was written "stauros". Stauros, in fact, meant originally a vertical wooden pole, a pole, a stake or a pal. Although, in our time, this word means in Greek also a cross, there is no indication that he was already well in the time of Jesus. When the verb STAUROÔ, which we translate as "Crucify", he meant "Fix a stauros."
Stauros is then translated into Latin Bibles by the word "CRUX" (hence derive the word "CROSS" in french). But among the Romans, originally, the word also meant CRUX not a simple right post or bracket.
Jesus would not he dead on a cross but on a single post?
In fact, the Romans could use the CRUX more way for torturing prisoners sentenced to death, as indicated Sénèue young in his text "De consolatione ad Marciam"
"I see their crosses (CRUX), not just one but different: some have their victims with head facing the ground, some have their private parts impaled, others see them stretch their arms on a horizontal beam (alli brachia patíbulo explicuerunt). "
The terms used were:
- "Cruci AFFIGERE" meant "Attach a CRUX."
- "IN crucem SUFFIGERE" meant "Put on a CRUX" it for PAL.
- "Pendere IN CRUCE" meant "Hang a CRUX, the latter serving as gallows.
In addition, the Romans knew several kinds of CRUX for kills. When they wanted to be precise, they distinguished the following types:
- The "SIMPLEX CRUX" was a single pole in one piece without crossbar.
- The CRUX commissâ / CRUX SUMMISSA was shaped T (Tau).
- The CRUX CAPITATA / CRUX immissa had the shape of the current Christian Latin cross.
- The CRUX decussata was X-shaped (like the current "St. Andrew's Cross").
So what kind of CRUX Jesus he was crucified?
In ancient biblical texts, the word "CRUX / stauros" however, is not only used to denote the instrument of torture on death row: the word "Xulon" is also used. Xulon, Greek (or "ETS" in Hebrew) means "wood" and can be translated as "tree trunk" or "wooden beam". Some support the above to say that Jesus was put to death on a simple wooden pole (CRUX SIMPLEX) and not a true cross with a horizontal element (CRUX CAPITATA or commissâ).
In the Septuagint, in Ezra 6:11, it is written:
"And here is the order I give whosoever shall alter this word be pulled down from his house a wooden beam (Xulon) being set up, let him be hanged (or hanged or impaled) and hit."
In the Septuagint in Deuteronomy 21: 22-23, it is written:
"If you killed a man guilty of a sin punishable by death, and thou hang him on a tree (Xulon), his body shall not remain all night upon the tree, but thou shalt enseveliras the same day for he that is hanged is accused of God, and you shall not defile your land that YAHWAH thy God grivet thee for an inheritance. "
The "Mishnah, Sanhedrin VI, 3" says:
"Next Rabbi Eliezer, all stoned hanged, but the doctors say that depends only blasphemers and idolaters were hanged man facing the people and the woman facing the woods, following Rabbi Eliezer;., But the doctors say that we hang the man and not the woman (...) How is it hanging? wood is pushed into the ground, standing, hands of the condemned one another and are joined hangs. Rabbi Yose said timber is supported on a wall and they are hanged as butchers, then the immediately off, otherwise it would violate the prohibition 'not to leave hanging the curse of God.' "
However, if this shows that the Hebrews well nailed their convicted on a simple wooden pole, nothing indicates that the Romans have done the same with Jesus.
In the New Testament in Greek, the word "Xulon" is also sometimes used instead of "stauros" ...
In "Acts 5:30" It is written:
"The God of our fathers raised up Jesus, whom you killed, hanging him on wood (Xulon)."
In "Acts 10:39" It is written:
"We are witnesses of everything he did in the country of the Jews and in Jerusalem. They killed him by hanging wood (Xulon)."
In "Acts 1:29 p.m." it is written:
"And when they had fulfilled all that was written of him, they took him down from the cross (Xulon), and laid him in a sepulcher."
In "Acts 16:249" it is written:
"Who, having received such a command, threw them into the inner prison, and made their vines (Xulon) feet."
In "I Corinthians 3:12" it is written:
"Now if anyone builds on this foundation with gold, silver, precious stones, wood (Xulon), hay, stubble ..."
In "Galatians 3:13" It is written:
"Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law by becoming a curse for us: for it is written. 'Cursed is everyone who hangs on wood (Xulon)"
In "I Peter 2:24" it is written:
"... He who himself bore our sins in his body on the tree (Xulon), so that we die to sin and live to righteousness ..."
But one cannot draw anything conclusive from these passages. Indeed, Xulon may certe designate a single wooden pole, but nothing prevents to designate as any wooden object. And the horizontal beam of the cross is also a Xulon.
Other Jewish texts also speak of Jesus hanging on a tree ("ETS" in Hebrew) ...
In the Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 43a, it is written:
. "On the eve of Easter, was hanged Yeshu (Jesus) During the 40 days before the execution, a herald was crying. 'It shall be stoned because he has practiced magic and deceived and led astray Israel If anyone has something to say in his favor he advances in his name. 'But we found no one who would testify in his favor and was hanged on the eve of Easter. "
In a manuscript of Josippon (collection of writings in Hebrew) it is written:
"... Ben Pandera Jeshu'ah Nasoréen who made the great miracles in Israel until the Pharisees had defeated and hanged on a wood."
But these writings, pretty late, are too vague to clarify the shape of the sideways cross.
Note however that in the Old Testament, when it comes to the defeat of the king of Ai in the book of Joshua, it is said that the winners did it "hanged on a tree" (ETS in Hebrew). However, the Septuagint (Greek Bible) translates this "timber (" ETS ") by" Xulon DIDYMON "is to say" double timber. "This seems to mean that this wooden instrument was composed of two parts, as CRUX commissâ or CAPITATA.
And you can still explore other ancient texts to try to determine what type of CRUX Jesus was crucified...
Around 169 AD, Lucian, in his text "From Dead Peregrini" speaks of the great man Jesus who was impaled in Palestine for introducing a new religious celebration. The Greek word used is "anaskolopizein" which means "impale" and not "stauroo" meaning "crucify". That would suggest that Jesus was impaled on stakes, a pal, a CRUX SIMPLEX. But in fact this verb might also be translated as "drill" and therefore describe a tortured nailed to a cross.
Note however that "anaskolopizein" ("put the pal") is rather used for men impaled alive when we emploit "anastauroun" / "anastaurizein" ("to cross") for the impaled corpses.
Divers autres textes anciens peuvent être sollicités pour connaitre la forme de la "CRUX" de Jésus ...
Vers 130 ap.JC, l' "Epître de Barnabé 9.8"(un appendice du "Codex Sinaiticus") dit ceci :
"La croix en forme de T devait apporter la grâce."
Justin le Martyr (100/114 - 162/168 ap.JC), dans son texte "Dialogue avec Tryphon" (vers 160 ap.JC) a écrit :
"And the human form differs from that of irrational animals when standing with his hands outstretched ... and this is the shape of the cross (...)
Lamb, when roasted, is arranged to include the cross: a pin pierces upright from the lower limbs to the head, the other through the back, and attaches the legs of lamb (...)
When the people fought Amalek, Moses himself prayed to God with hands outstretched on each side and one who prevailed, prevailed by the cross. This is not because Moses prayed that the people gained the advantage, but because warhead was the name of Jesus / Joshua and Moses represented the cross. "
Irenaeus (130-210 AD) in his book "Against Heresies II, 24.4", states:
"The structure of the cross has five ends, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, which is based on the Crucified."
Around 197 AD Tertullian wrote in his book "Ad Nationes"
"The piece of wood that is fixed in the ground in a straight position is a part of the cross, and the greatest part of its mass. But an entire cross is attributed us, with its transverse beam, of course."
On one wall of Palatine in Rome. Graffiti was found, probably from shortly after 200 AD. JC. Made to make fun of a Christian, he represented Jesus as a crucified on a donkey or CRUX commissâ CAPITATA.
And the writings of the evangelists go in the same direction...
N John 20.25, we read:
"Unless I see in his hands the print of the nails, and if I put my finger into the print of the nails, and put my hand into his side, I will not believe."
The word "nails" is plural, this shows that there were nails in Jesus' hands. It was therefore not both hands nailed by one nail above his head, like a CRUX SIMPLEX. But his hands were dismissed as a CRUX commissâ or CAPITATA.
And in Matthew 27.37, we read:
"To specify the subject of his accusation written above his head: 'This is Jesus, the King of the Jews."
If he had his hands in the air (like a CRUX SIMPLEX) would have rather written "over his hands" and not "over his head" (as a CRUX commissâ or CAPITATA).
All these old stories go in the same direction: The cross of Jesus was not a post (CRUX SIMPLEX) but commissâ CRUX CRUX or CAPITATA.
In addition, various archaeological findings show that cross four branches ("CRUX CAPITATA") was already used as a symbol by early Christians in ancient times, prior to the Edict of Milan in 312 by Constantine av.JC. ..
In 1862, a wall inscription coal was discovered in Pompeii (dating therefore before its destruction in 79 AD. AD), in the house called "the inn of Christians." It can be read as follows: "Bovios audit [t] Khristianos s [a] evos Osores" is to say "listening Bovios Christians cruel hate." In another house in Pompeii, a bakery, we also found several crosses in Pompeii, one plaster. However, some dispute the attribution to Christians because of the presence in the same place, with paintings depicting a serpent deity and obscene scenes.
In 1873, a mortuary cave in the Mount of Olives , we found 30 cases rectangular stone sheltering skeletal remains . One of them bore the name " Judah " associated with a cross with arms of equal length. In addition, the name "Jesus" appeared three times , two of which related to a cross. These ossuaries were dated before 135 AD. J. -C ( second Jewish revolt ) because after that date , the Romans forbade Jews to enter Aelia Capitolina on the (new Roman name for Jerusalem).
In 1939, at Herculaneum (dating therefore before its destruction in 79 AD . J. -C) , was found a wooden cross nailed to the wall of a house ( called " Bicentennial " homes ) . In the " . . Buried History , vol 10, No. 1, March 1974, p 15" it is described as follows:
" Beneath the cross there was a closet with a walk before . Was thought that it was a shrine or an alcove , but he could very well be a place of prayer . [ ...] If this interpretation is correct, and archaeologists lean strongly in favor of the Christian meaning of the symbol and furniture, then we are in the presence of a house used as a church. "
In 1945, a Jewish family ossuary was discovered at the southern end of the Kidron Valley on the road to Bethlehem. In the ".. Ancient Times, vol 3, No. 1, July 1958, pp. 3-5" is described this tomb:
"Two ossuaries bore the name 'Jesus' in Greek [...]. The second was also four large crosses [...] because pottery, lamps and the shape of the letters used for registration possible to date the tomb a period between the 1st century BC. BC and the middle of the 1st century AD. AD at the latest, it means that the inscriptions date no later than two decades after the crucifixion. "
A coin dating from 41 AD there was also found. The most interesting is that in one of the coffins, the inscription of the name Jesus was followed by the exclamation "Y'HO". This could be translated as «Jesus is Lord» or «To Jesus, Yahweh??"
All these elements seem to prove that the cross of Jesus was not a post (CRUX SIMPLEX) but a cross with four arms (CRUX CAPITATA).
Note that, apart from the CRUX SIMPLEX was reduced to a single vertical pole, the other CRUX were composites (CRUX Composita). The CRUX CRUX CAPITATA commissâ and consisted of two elements: a vertical post called "STEVE" and a horizontal beam called "patibulum", "FURCA" or "ANTENNA". The word "sinister" derives from this root and refers to a man who deserves to be crucified on a patibulum.
In general, the STEVE remained fixed in the ground and only the patibulum was added to each Excecution. And it was the condemned man was to carry to the place of execution (after Seneca in "De Vita Beata 19:3; Epistle 101:12" and after Tacitus' Historiae, IV, 3 "). In Plautus as we read about it: "He wore his patibulum across the city."
If Jesus was really crucified on a cross type "CRUX Composita" (or CAPITATA commissâ), it therefore had to wear the horizontal patibulum not the entire cross (it would have also been too heavy for a man weakened by flogging: 40 to 50 kilograms).
Sometimes other wooden elements were added to the cross: A Sedula (SEDILE) enabling tortured to sit, and suppedaneum for supporting his feet.
Some think that Jesus could have been crucified on a CRUX commissâ (T-shaped), but the addition of a panel ("titulus") above his head (with the inscription "INRI") would makes it look like a "CRUX CAPITATA" (Phillips). However nothing really finding no reason to unravel this question.
Note that the convicts were usually attached to the cross with cords. However nails are mentioned in the "Jewish Wars V 2" Flavius Josephus, in this passage about the Headquarters of Jerusalem in 70 AD:
"The soldiers, drunk with rage and hatred, nailed those they caught, one after another, to cross, to have fun."
In 1968, at Givat Mivtar northeast of Jerusalem, was found in a mass grave skeletons of 35 Jews who were executed at the time of the anti-Roman revolt 70 after JC An inscription identified one of them as the Jehohanan ben Shaggol (Yohan Ben Ha'galgol): he was a man measuring 1m 68cm, crucified when he was between 24 and 28 years. One study showed that his arms were extended horizontally, attached to a patibulum, not over the head like a CRUX SIMPLEX. The bones of the wrists bore no trace of nail, but scratches were clearly marked on the right radius. So it seems that this was the sign of the square nails (or a rope?) We must place higher than the wrist. At least one iron nail, 11.5 cm long, it pierced the heels outward.
Historical Roman accounts and experimental studies have established that the nails were convicted planted through the so-called "space Destot" between the small bones of the wrists (radial and ulna) and not in the palms. If the nails were driven into the palms, they would have torn the skin and are out of the hands under the weight of the human body. The misconception that Jesus was pierced hands may be rooted in a misunderstanding of Jesus' words to Thomas, "Observe my hands." In Hebrew, the word that translates as "hand" ("Yadh") also covers the wrist. This is seen in texts such as "Genesis 24:47," which speaks of bangles worn with "hands" and "Judges 3:14 p.m." when it comes to barriers that were on the "hands" Samson.
It was determined that as Jesus condemned and attached arms outstretched on the cross, was kept on the edge of suffocation and could not attempt to catch his breath that relying on the feet or on the Sedula, s' there was one. So the tortured dying eventually choking and exhaustion within hours. And if he survived too long, the Romans broke his shin, which definitely forbade him to build on the feet (see "John 19:31-33"). Thus they provoked rapid suffocation because the condemned could not push her legs to allow him to inflate his lungs. Regarding the tortured Giv'at Mivtar, it was observed that her legs were crushed below the knees to accelerate death. The right tibia seemed to have been the hardest hit, as it was divided into multiple sides, and the left tibia was one break sawtooth.
For cons, the Austrian doctor Hermann Moedder showed in 1948 that if a man on a pole (CRUX SIMPLEX) were hanged, so with his hands above his head, he would die of suffocation after only about six minutes. The duration of the agony of Jesus is therefore compatible with the use of a CRUX Composita (CRUX CRUX commissâ or CAPITATA) and not a single post (CRUX SIMPLEX).
Finally, it seems that the Christian tradition was right with regard to the shape of the sideways cross necklace.
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